Representative fraction.Representative fraction and scale bars from a United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic map. This topographic map has an RF of 1:24,000, which means that one unit on the map represents 24,000 units on the ground.
Map resolution and extent. This map shows a national extent and a state resolution. The extent of the map is national while the resolution is at the state level because they are the finest level of spatial detail that we can see.
More map extent and resolution. Maps showing an extent of the Pacific Northwest. The top image has a spatial resolution of the county and the bottom has a spatial resolution of census tracts.
Coordinate system. Locations on the Earth’s surface are measured in terms of coordinates, a set of two or more numbers that specifies a location in relation to some reference system.
当制图师试图将三维地球转换成二维地图时,他们也面临着同样的三个问题。如果你有一个纸做的地球仪,你可以小心地试着把它“剥”成一张平的纸。 Shearing, tearing, compression. Cartographers face these three issues of shearing, tearing, and compression on a globe when they try to transform the three-dimensional globe into a two-dimensional map.
Thinking of projections in physical terms. You can conceptualize projection as working with a clear globe, a light bulb, and tracing paper. If you had a clear globe the size of a beach ball and placed a light inside this globe, it would cast shadows onto a surrounding surface. This surface can be a (a) cylinder, (b) cone, or (c) plane.
Tangency. Red lines or dots mark the tangent line or point respectively. The flat surface touches the globe and it is the point on the projected map which has the least distortion. the place where the developable surface touches the globe is known as the tangent point or tangent line. These surfaces can be a (a) cylinder, (b) cone, or (c) plane.
Mercator distortion. The Mercator projection is conformal because it preserves shape and angle but strongly distorts area.
Equal Area
在等面积投影(Equal Area Projection)中,地图上任何区域的大小都与地球上的真实大小成正比。换句话说,与地球上的国家相比,国家的形状可能会被压扁或拉伸,但它们的陆地面积相对于其他陆地是准确的。例如,在盖尔-彼得斯投影中,格陵兰岛的形状发生了明显的变化,但与非洲相比,其面积的大小是正确的。
Gall-Peters projection. The Gall Peters projection is equal area. Note how the shape of Greenland is significantly altered, but the size of its area is correct in comparison to other regions such as Africa.
Robinson Projection. Some projections, including the Robinson projection, strike a balance between the different map properties. In other words, they do not preserve shape, area, or distance, but instead try to avoid extreme distortion.
其他投影则通过在一些重要位置撕开平面来将三维地球变平。
间断投影(如间断的Goode Homolosine projection)以分裂的几片来表示地球,减少了两极附近的形状和面积变形。该投影由约翰-保罗-古德(John Paul Goode)于 1923 年开发,为墨卡托投影提供了一种替代方案,用于描绘全球区域关系。
Goode homolosine projection of the world. This equal-area projection is interrupted in the sense that it uses lobes or sections.